VARIOUS TYPES OF LEADERSHIP -PRINCIPLES OF MANAGEMENT

VARIOUS TYPES OF LEADERSHIP

BY

SMART LEARNING WAY

CONTENTS 

INTRODUCTION

DEFINITION OF LEADERSHIP

VARIOUS TYPES  OF LEADERSHIP

CONCLUSION

BIBLIOGRAPHY 

INTRODUCTION 

Leadership is an indivisible part of directing. Management and leadership are often thought of as one and the same thing. But this is not true leadership is an important part of management but not all of it.

FOR EXAMPLE : Managers are required to plan and organize but the main role of a leader is to seek defined objective. This means that a strong leader may be a poor manager if his poor planning causes his group to move in wrong direction.     

Leadership is a natural process and must fulfilled whenever human beings are brought together for a common objectives only a leader  can guide his subordinates.

Rightly opines that managers have manage to business which means that they have to provide leadership.

DEFINITION OF LEADERSHIP

‘‘Leadership is influencing people to follow in the achievement of common goal.’’                                -KOONTZ AND O’DONNELL                                                                                                                    

                                                                                                                                     

  “A leader is one who guides and directs other people .A leader given the efforts of his followers a direction and purpose by influencing their BEHAVIOUR”. -LOUIS A.ALLEN

                                                                                                           

"The ability of a person to guide them in their activities in a manner so as to secure actions from a group of followers voluntarily without the use of threat or coercion”.

                                                                       -THE STANDARD OXFORD DICTIONARY

TYPES  OF LEADERSHIP

1    AUTOCRATIC  LEADERSHIP

2    DEMOCRATIC  LEADERSHIP

3     LAISEZ-FAIRE  LEADERSHIP

4    PARTICIPATIVE  LEADERSHIP

5     CONSULTATIVE  LEADERSHIP

6     PATERNALISTIC  LEADERSHIP

7     BUREAUCRATIC  LEADERSHIP

8      MANIPULATIVE    LEADERSHIP

9     EXPERT     LEADERSHIP

AUTOCRATIC   LEADERSHIP

·         An autocratic  leader is work centered or leader –centered .He concentrates all the authority and all the decision-making powers in himself.

·         His  subordinates  fully depend upon him and are unaware of the goals  of the organization. The leader takes and assumes full responsibility for decision making ,for initiating action and for directing,motivating and controlling his subordinates. Autocratic leader may think that the he is the only competent and

·         Capable individual and that his subordinates are incapable or unwilling to guide themselves, or  he may have other  reasons for assuming a strong position of guidance control.

ADVANTAGES 

·         Since decision – making power is centralized decisions are taken very quickly.  less competent and skilled employees can be hired by management since they have to only carry out instruction  of the leaders and not initiate any action in their own.

DRAWBACKS

·         workers do not get job satisfaction and are not always ready to work under the  negative style of leadership.

Frustration  and  dissatisfaction can develop amongst the follower which may negatively affect the productivity.

DEMOCRATIC  LEADERSHIP

·         AS  the spirit of team work improves the leader not only invite followers to participate in the decision – making process, they also often start taking decisions according to the desires of  the majority of the  followers.

·         The decisions are made in the group through group discussions by the formation of various commttees.it is also called as ‘group  dynamics' approach to participation.

ADVANTAGE

·         There is the development of the spirit of cooperation the innovative capabilities of subordinates are explored. It can give management new ideas of dealing with a particular problem.

 

·      IT leads  to the overall  development of the subordinates who become capable of becoming the potential managers.

LIMITATIONS

·         Consultation with subordinates  every time a decision has to be made is a time consuming process. Decisions may sometimes be delayed.

·    

       Suggestions given by subordinates may sometimes be better than what the leaders could have thought of leaders in such cases may not feel happy inviting suggestions.

·         Offering  suggestions may be felt as an extra burden by the employees and they may not always be willing to do so.

LAISSEZ-FAIRE  LEADERSHIP

·         The leaders give  the entire responsibility of forming the goals and devising means to achieve those goals to the group  members . The leaders remain indifferent to the group activities and allow them to carry out their work in their own way.

·         The role of a leader is that of an on-looker who plays a  very minor role in affecting the group goals. This is not a very acceptable style of leadership to be applied in business organizations unless the leaders have a very strong referent and expert power whose influence itself motivates the subordinates to set goals of the appropriate standard which are capable of being effectively achieved.

ADVANTAGES

·         IT increases the morale of the employees towards a higher job sartisfaction as they them selves have to set and achieve the goals.

·         the subordinates train their own group members and motivate them to work. The results are likely to be more productive.

LIMITATION

·         The leaders do not participate in the group’s way of working at the most they only answer the questions that the group members ask them. The efficiency of such work activities is likely to be low.

·         leaving everything to subordinates may prove to be chaotic for the entire organisation.

PARTICIPATIVE  LEADERSHIP

·         These leaders do not centralized the decision making authority with them rather they decent rallies it to their followers though the ultimate responsibility continues to vest  with the leaders they take all decisions in consultation with their followers.

·         The followers thus develop a sense of involvement in the decision –making process and contribute more positively towards the group goals.

·         They see themselves as an important part of the organizasation and readily offer their services to their leaders.

Participation has been defined as  ‘Mental and emotional involvement of persons in group situatious that encourage them to contribute to group goals and share responsibility for them. --KEITH   DAVIS

CONSULTATIVE  LEADERSHIP

·       The consultative method of leadership is more likely to succeed. The subordinates put their heart in their work when their views and opinions are respected and their ego is satisfied thereby. 

·         Where other methods fail, this method can succeed in raising morale of the workers. Close personal contacts are developed and clear understanding of the problems are ensued. The departmental heads get opportunity to hear and see the president and other top officials of the company. They listen to their viewpoints and understand the forces which have worked  behind decisions.

ADVANTAGES

·          

     The participation in management raises the productivity and job satisfaction among employees.

·         As their suggestion and opinions are solicited and considered, the employees feel sense of status.

·         Morale and discipline among employees are maintained at a high level.

·         Evils of concentration of power are sought to be removed

LIMITATION

·         The method generally succeeds when subordinates are educated, having a sense of responsibility and organized. However, such is not always the case.

·         It results into great waste of time. Decisions are taken after long deliberations and exchange of ideas;hence the decision making is delayed.

·         Most of managers become uneasy with this approach,thinking that they will lose control over the subordinates.

PATERNALISTIC LEADERSHIP

·         Under this management style the leader assumes that his function is fatherly or paternal. Paternalism means papa know best .The relationship between the head of the family with the members of the family.

·     The leader guides and protects his subordinates as members of his family. As the head of the family he provides his subordinates with good working conditions and fringe benefits.

·         It is assumed that workers will work harder out of gratitude. This leadership style was admirably successful in Japan with her peculiar social background.

·         This leadership style has been widely prevalent in small firms in India. However this paternalistic approach is unlikely to work with mature adult employees many of whom do not like their interests to be looked after by a “good father” instead of gratitude it might generate antagonism and resentment in the subordinates.

BUREAUCRATIC LEADERSHIP

·         The leader’s behavior is characterized by a high degree of reliance on rules, regulations and procedures to which both he and his subordinates subscribe. As a result the process of administration is reduced to a series of routine actions.

·         The rules specify the obligations of the subordinates and enjoin upon them to do particular things in specific ways. There is no participation or initiative on their part.

·         This style of leadership fosters worker apathy. The rules serve as a specification of the minimum level of acceptable performance. It is possible for workers to remain apathetic, for they know just now little they should do to remain secure in their jobs.

·

·         This leads to what is called bureaucratic sabotage a deliberate  apathy fused with resentment so that every act of conforming to the letter of the rule is accompanied  by a conscious intention to violate it.

·         Rules make it possible for workers to indulge in activity without participation, they enable  them to work without being emotionally committed to work. 

·         Rules also lead to red tape and the buck, too much paper work and too great a desire to play safe.

MANIPULATIVE  LEADERSHIP

·         This style of leadership is based on the belief that employees are persons who should be manipulated  by the leader so that his goal may be attained. It exploits the aspirations of the employees. Under this style of leadership employees know that they are being manipulated and therefore, become resentful and bitter.

·         A manipulative leader, however, is very sensitive about the needs and desires of his employees as individuals. But the information 

·         Gathered as a result of this sensitivity is not used for the benefit of the employees instead it is utilized by him for his own personal profit.

The  main  characteristics of this style are

  1  personal goals are reached by a manipulation of the employees.

 2  Employee needs and desires are viewed as tools to extract performance.

This style of leadership is effective only in specific situations.

   For  Example

                      When co-operation and co- ordination have to be achieved on a project and previous leaders were unable to motivate the group properly; or when highly motivated employees and needed for short duration projects. They are often give the illusion of reward and are thus motivated for short periods.

EXPERT LEADERSHIP

·         This is an emerging style of leadership resulting in past from to complexity of modern organizations. The basis for expert leadership is the individual leader’s knowledge and ability; and he assumes the role of the leader regardless of his age, sex, physical or other attributes.

     It depends largely on the approximate of skills and the needs of other in a situation with any change in a particular situation, another person may become the leader who would meet the needs arising out of

·          

    The change in these circumstances, a person is    looked upon by group members as an expert who must continuously demonstrate his expertise in order to maintain his position as a leader.

IN THIS STYLE OF LEADERSHIP

1.  The perception of group members ensures that the leader’s talent and expertise are joined with the needs of the situations.

2.  Leadership skills are usually transferable. The expert leader is effective in one situation may really be a ‘‘BOMB’’ in another.

  Such  expertise can be successful in these situations 

1.  When the group members are convinced that they can reach their goal by following the advice and guidance of the expert

2.  when a situation develops in which specific expertise is necessary for the survival or performance of group.

CONCLUSION

·         A leader is guides and directs other people. A leader givens the efforts of his followers a direction and purpose by influencing their behaviour.Leadership is different from managisement.It is only a part of management .

·         A good leadership is a must for the success of a business. Good motivates his subordinates creates confidence in them sustains their enthusiasm increases their morale ensures high productivity and stability in the organization helps in the use of productivity and stability in the organization helps in the use of achieving organization goals.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

1.PRINCIPLES  OF MANAGEMENT

    BY PRIN T. Y. RANA , PROF A. B. SAVJANI,  B. S. SHAH PARKASHAN

2 .  PERSONNEL   OF  MANAGEMENT

     BY DR.C.B  MAMARIYA, PROF.S.V.GANKAR

    HIMALAYA   PUBLISHING  HOUSE

3. A NEW LOOK ORGANAISATIONAL  BEHAVIOUR 

     BY BISWANATH  GHOSH

    HIMALAYA  PUBLISHING  HOUSE

 4  STODENTS’  GUIDE  TO MANAGEMENT

      BY D.R.  N.  VASISHTH  

VROOM’S EXPECTANCY THEORY OF MOTIVATION - PRINCIPLES OF MANAGEMENT

VROOM’S EXPECTANCY THEORY OF MOTIVATION

BY

SMART LEARNING WAY

Contents

 Introduction Of Motivation

 Various Definition Of Motivation

 Important Elements Of Model

 Vroom’s Expectancy Theory Product of Valence and Expectancy

 Vroom’s Expectancy Theory

 Vroom’s model

 Conclusion

 Bibliography

    

Introduction Of Motivation

Motivation is the force that drives a person into action. In the context of business, when we say that a manager motivates a person, it means he inspires him to do a particular task that will lead to the accomplishment of organizational goal. 

The person concerned in turn, shall perform that task only if he feels that such an action would satisfy his personal needs. A person initially joins an organization for the monetary benefits. Once his financial needs are reasonably satisfied he looks forward to the satisfaction of his behavioral needs. A person who works at a position where enough financial rewards are offered but the level of job satisfaction is low. Will perhaps look for another job.

Motivation, is often a very complex task because the factors that motivate an individual to work are themselves very complex and complicated. Financial incentives may be important for one worker while non-financial incentives may be important for the other. The manager must, therefore, be well equipped in the skills of determining as to what motivates the human behavior. In fact, motivation is an aspect of management where managers themselves need to be trained before they set in to motivate their subordinates.

An individual works or performs a particular behavioral activity, in the first instance, not because he wishes the organizational goals to be achieved but probably because that work will give him some financial rewards through which he can satisfy his own needs and desires. The need, is therefore, the main driving force that motivates human behavior towards a particular action. 

Various Definition Of Motivation

Definitions of motivation given by different management thinkers are given below:

According to Gibson “Motivation may be defined as the state on of individual tie which represents the strength of his or her propensity to untoward some particular behavior.”

According to Dubrin “motivation refers to expenditure of efforts towards a go”.

According to Steers and porter “motivation is the force that energizes behavior, gives direction to behavior and underlies the tendency to persist.”  

According to Weihrich And Koontz:- “ motivation is a general  term applying  to the entire class of drives, desires, needs, wishes and similar forces. To say that managers motivate there subordinates  is to say that they do those things which they hope will satisfy these drives and desires and induce the subordinates to act In a desired manner”.

According to Pearce And Robinson “ Motivation is the out come of the process by which a manager induces others to work to achieve organizational objectives as means of satisfying their own personal desires”.

According to Encyclopedia of management, the motivation is defined as, “the degree of readiness of an organization to pursue some designated goal and implies the determination of the nature and locus of force, inducing the degree of readiness.”

Important Elements Of Model

This model is based upon the assumption that the man is a rational being and will try to maximize his pay off. He will choose an alternative that would give him the most benefit . This approach assumes that motivation to work is strongly determined  by  an individual’s perception that a certain type of behavior will lead to a certain type of outcome and his personal preference for that type of out come .  

There are three important elements in this model:-

Expectancy:- 

                         This is a person’s  perception of the likelihood that  a particular outcome will result from a particular behavior or action.  The likelihood is probabilistic in nature and describes that relationship between an act and an outcome. For example, if a person works hard, he may except to perform better and increase productivity. Similarly, if a student works hard during the semester, he expects to do well in the final examination.

Instrumentality:- 

                              This factor relates to a persons belief and expectation that his performance will lead to a particular desired reward . it is the degree of association of first level outcome of a particular effort to the second level outcome – which is the ultimate reward for example , working  hard may lead to better performance, which is the first level outcome ,which may result in a reward like raise in pay or promotion or both, which is the second level outcome.

 If a person believe that his performance will not be recognized or lead to expected rewards , he will not be motivated  to work hard to improve on his techniques of teaching and communication (first level outcome) in order to get promotion and tenure (second level outcome) Accordingly to ,the instrumentality is the performance- reward relationship

Valence:-

                        Valence is the value a person assigns to his desired reward. He may not be willing to work hard to improve performance, if the reward for such improved performances not what he desires. It is not the actual value of the reward but the perceptional value of the reward in the mind of the work hard, not to get pay raise but to get recognition and status. Another person may be more interested in job security than with status.

Accordingly, according to this model of motivation, the person level of effort (MOTIVATION) depends upon:-

Expectancy:- 

A worker must be confident that his efforts will result in better productivity and that he has the ability to perform the task well.

Instrumentality: - 

The worker must be confident that such high performance will be Instrumental in getting desired rewards.

Valence: - 

The worker must value these rewards as desired and satisfactory. Hence motivation is related to all these three factors as:

Motivational Force (M) =Expectancy (E) x Instrumentality (I) x Valence (V) or M= (E X I X V).

Vroom’s Expectancy Theory Product of Valence and Expectancy:-

Vroom’s expectancy theory – vroom theory asserts that motivation is a  product of valance and expectancy.

 MOTIVATION OR FPRCE = valance *expectancy

Force is the motivation that influences an individual to act or behave in the given manner

Valence is how strong an individual holds about the outcome of his action. “it is the preference an individual places on an outcome.”

Valance may be positive or negative depending on his preference for an outcome. It ranges from -1 to +1. if a particular action of employee is followed by a promotion, he will prefer doing that action. Since the outcome has a positive value, valence shall be +1. if his action shall result into his transfer or demotion, he would avoid such an outcome and therefore, shall place negative value to the outcome. The valance for the outcome is -1. If an individual action is not affected by any outcome, a routine behaviour, foe examples, which is neither followed by outcomes of promotion or demotion, the valence shall be zero (0).

Expectancy is a belief that an action shall lead to an outcome. It ranges from to 1. if an employee believes that his action will lead to an outcome, his expectancy is 1 and if the probability that his action shall not lead to any outcome is high, the expectancy shall be more towards zero. Two types of expectancies have been talked of:-

Efforts-performance expectancy: -

                      It is the expectation of the employee that is efforts shall lead to a desire performance. For example, an individual may feel that if he works  for 2 hours overtime every day, he shJall be able to produce more. If the employee feels that his efforts shall lead to the desire performance, he shall  perform task. 

Performance:- 

                       It is outcome expectancy It is the expectation of the employees that if the desired performance is achieved, it shall be followed by a positive outcome. Greater the probability that the performance shall be followed by a positive outcome, greater shall be the desire of the individual to perform that action. In the above example, the employee shall put in 2 hours of  overtime every day only if he expects an increase in his salary. If the management dose not give him any extra benefit for producing more, his expectancy shall be zero (0)and he shall not be motivated to perform that action.

Vroom’s Expectancy Theory:-

This theory tells us that simply making motivation factors available to people is not enough. People must believe that by working , they will receive reward that are important to them. People’s actions are based on their expectations as well as their needs. Unless there is a  positive expectation of a reward that well satisfy a need ,an individual' will not take action. To illustrate consider a person who is thirsty .there may be need for water, but the action of going to the faucet and getting a drink  occurs only if he expects will result in obtaining water.

The experience of one manufacturing company indicates the importance of expectations. The management head decided to expand the company, and it knew that a number of supervisors would be  needed to prepare for the expansion, the company decided to run a training programmed for its employees (non-supervisors) to prepare them to become supervisors. the programmed was open to all  employees at no cost. When the programmed started ,only three people attended the programmed. 

Management interviewed the employees who did not participate to find out the reasons for their poor participation. Many employees stated that they would like to be promoted but did not feel that attending the programmed would help." promotion is based on whom you know," was the commonly expressed opinion. in other words although promotion was a motivating factor to employees, they did not participate in the training programmed because they did not believe it would help them in getting promotion.

Similarly, how hard people work is affected by their needs and whether or not they expect a good job performance to result in rewards that will satisfy their needs. To be motivated, people  must believe that by working hard, they will fulfill  the needs that are important to them.

 In short, we can say, that if a manager wants to motivate his employees, he should do the following:-

1. Try to offer rewards (motivation factors) that are important to his employees.

2. Create positive expectations.

THE VROOM THEORY AND PRACTICE:-

                           One of the great attractions of the Vroom theory is that it recognizes the importance of various individual needs and motivations. It thus avoids some of the simplistic features of the maslow and Herzberg approaches. It dose seem more realistic. it fits  the concept of harmony of objectives individuals have personal goals different from organizational goals, but these can be harmonized.furthermore,Vroom’s theory is completely consistent with the system of managing by objectives.

The strength of Vroom’s theory is also its weakness. His assumption that senses of value vary among individuals at different times and in various places appears to fit real life more accurately. It is consistent also with the idea that a manager’s job is to design an  environment for performance, necessarily taking in to account the differences in various situations. On the other hand vroom’s theory is  difficult to apply in practice. Despite its difficulty in application, the logical accuracy of Vroom’s theory indicates that motivation is much more complex than the approaches of Maslow and Herzberg seem to imply.

This theory developed by victor h. vroom and it expands upon those developed by Maslow and Herzberg. It views motivation as a process governing choices. Thus, if an individual has a particular goal, in order to achieve  the goal, some behavior must be performed. The individual, therefore, weights the likelihood  that various behaviors will achieve the desired goal, and if certain behavior “is expected to be more successful than others ,that type of  behavior will likely be selected. An important contribution of vroom’s theory is that it explains  how the goals of individuals influence their effort and that the behavior in goals of individuals influence their effort and that the behavior individuals select depends upon their assessment of the probability that the behavior will successfully lend to the goal. For example, all members of an organization may not place the same value on such job factors as promotion, high pay, job security, and working conditions. In other words, they may rank them differently. Vroom believes that what is important is the perception and value the individual places upon certain goals.

The expectancy theory argues that the  strength of a tendency to act in a certain way depends in the strength of an expectation that the act will be followed by a given outcome and on the attractiveness of the outcome of the individual. it includes three variables (which vroom refers to as valence,*Instrumentality, and Expectancy)   

Attractiveness:-

The importance or the strength that the individual places on potential outcome or reward that can be achieved on the job this considers the unsatisfied needs of the individual.

Performance-reward linkage:-

The degree to which the individual believes that performing of   particular level will lead to the attainment of each job outcome.

Effort performance linkage:-

         The perceived probability by the individual that exerting a given amount of effort will lend to performance.

In other words, a person’s desire to produce at any given time depends on his particular goals and his perception of the relative worth of performance as a path to the attainment of these goals. The strength of a persons’ motivation to perform (effort) depends upon how strongly he believes that he can achieve what he attempts. The four steps inherent in vroom’s theory are: 

What outcome dose the job offers the employee?

The important issue to be considered is what individual employee perceives the outcome to be. Outcomes may be positive - such as pay security, companionship, trust, fringes benefits, a chance to use talents or skills, congenial relationship-or negative, such as fatigue, boredom, frustration, anxiety, harsh supervision, threat of dismissal, etc.

How attractive Do employees view these outcomes?

This issue is related to the individual and considers his likes and dislikes. If a particular outcome is found to be attractive (positive) individual would prefer attaining it to attaining it. It if is negative, he would prefer not attaining it to attaining it. Additionally, he may be natural.

What kind of behavior must the employee produce in order to achieve these objectives? 

The outcomes can be effective only when the employee knows clearly what he must do in order to achieve them – i.e., he should know what are the criteria on the basis of which his performance would be judged. 

How dose the employee view his chance of doing what is asked of him? 

After knowing his competencies and his abilities the individual should ascertain the probability of his successful attainment of the job.

In sum, vroom emphasizes the importance of individual perceptions and assessments of organizational behavior. The key to “expectancy” theory is the “understanding of an individual’s goals” – and the linkage between “efforts” and “performance” , between “performance” and “rewards” ‘ and between “rewards" and “individual-goal satisfaction.” 

 It is a contingency model, which recognizes that there is no universal method of motivating people. Because we understand what needs an employee seeks to satisfy dose not ensure that the employee himself perceives high job performance as necessarily leading to the satisfaction of these needs. 

Vroom’s model:-

VROOM’S MODEL has brought forward the following particulars:

Its emphasis is on pay of or rewards. In other words, the rewards an organization offers aligns with what the employee wants:

We have to be concerned with the attractiveness of rewards, which requires understanding and knowledge of what value the individual puts on organization payoff. Individual should be rewarded with those he value positively.

It emphasizes expected behaviors i.e.; the individual should know what is expected of him and how he will be appraised.

It implies that management should counsel subordinates to help them grasp a realistic view of their competency.

The management should support the subordinates in developing that skill that are important in leading to better performance.

It also implies that management should make extended efforts of demonstrating confidence in individual that they can perform well.

It has been used to explain specific forms of employee behavior; for example, the turn – over of younger workers, during pre-job training.

From management’s point of view, the implications of this theory are two-fold:

First, it is important to determine what needs each employee seeks to satisfy. This knowledge will be useful to management while attempting to align rewards available to the employee with the needs that the employee seeks to satisfy. It is necessary to individualize rewards to each employee, for rewards that are valuable for some may not be appealing to others. 

Second, management should attempt to clarify the path for the worker between efforts and needs satisfaction. Individual motivation will be significantly determined by the probabilities the worker assigns to the following relationship: 

His effort leading to performance – performance leading to rewards, and these rewards – satisfying personal goals.

Vroom’s theory, in sum, indicates only the conceptual determinants of motivation and how they how related. It  does not provide specific suggestions on what motivation humans in organization, as did the maslow and herzberg models. It is, however, of value in understanding organizational behavior. 

It clarifies the goals between individual and organizational goals. It attempts only to mirror the complex motivation process; it does not attement to describe how motivational decisions are actually made or to solve actual motivational problems facing manager. It needs further testing to prove its validity. 

Conclusion:-

The Expectancy Theory of Victor Vroom deals with motivation and management. Vroom's theory assumes that behavior results from conscious choices among alternatives whose purpose it is to maximize pleasure and minimize pain. 

Together with Edward Lawler and Lyman Porter, Vroom suggested that the relationship between people's behavior at work and their goals was not as simple as was first imagined by other scientists. Vroom realized that an employee's performance is based on individuals factors such as personality, skills, knowledge, experience and abilities.

Bibliography:-

Management Theory of Practice  - J. S. Chandan

Students guide to Management  - Dr. N. Vasisth

Essentials of Management       - Harold Koontz  - Heinz Weihrich

Essentials of Management - P. N. Reddy - P. C. Tripathi- H. R. Appannaia

Personnel Management - C. B. Mammoria